영어교육론 - Theories/models of second language acquisition(2)

* Swain's output hypothesis - input도 중요하지만 output 또한 중요하다. (Krashen을 비판하면서 등장 2)

1. comprehensible output - language produced by the learners that can be understood by others

 

2. pushed output - the output that reflects what learners can produce(self-repair) and what learners acquired when they are pushed to use language accurately(pushing).

+ the functions of (pushed) output - pushing을 받은 뒤에 “내 말을 전혀 못 알아듣네, 그럼 어떻게 말해야 하지?”라며 자신의 발화를 문법적으로 검토(meta-linguistic function/bottom-up)하고, "지금 내 수준에서는 이렇게 말 할 수 밖에 없구나“(noticing function), 후에 ”그럼 이런 식으로 바꿔서 이야기해볼까?“(hypothesis-testing function)

① notice the gap between what they want to say and what they're able to say - self-informed of shortcomings

② hypothesis-testing function - learners try out new rule and receive feedback from an interlocutor

③ meta-linguistic function - learners reflect on the language they learned, and thereby they can internalize it

+ not all pushed output is in fact modified - students can react just by repeating the same utterance or lead successful communication without modifying incorrect output ex) I go cinema - what? - I go cinema yesterday

+ modified output - the output modified from the initial utterance - not necessary to be successful uptake

+ enhanced output - output that becomes grammatical as a result of 'pushing'(signal)

 

3. uptake - students' immediate verbal reaction to the partner's signal of incomprehension or teacher's feedback

+ a reaction in some way to the teacher's intention to draw attention to some aspects of S's initial utterance

① in the assumption that students attempt to correct errors (modified)

⑴ successful uptake - Ss incorporates the linguistic information into his subsequent production

⑵ unsuccessful uptake - beyond ZPD, not developmentally ready, (transiently) too focus on the meaning

② what if students do not attempt to correct errors

⑴ ignore(no uptake) - unnoticed / ⑵ acknowledgement - just a simple reply

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* feedback on form or meaning - ex) 대화 중 문법의 오류 때문에 의미전달이 안될 경우 함께 고려될 수 있다.

① feedback on form(error correction, error treatment, pedagogical feedback, reactive form-focused instruction)

: error occurs(trigger) - pushing(signal) - pushed output(response)

② feedback on meaning(negotiation of meaning, conversational feedback)

: communication breaks down(trigger) - negotiation of meaning(signal) - uptake(using communication strategy)

 

* Mclaughlin's attention-processing model (strong interface position)

1. attention to formal properties of language - focal(form-focused) / peripheral(meaning-focused)

2. information processing - controlled(temporary, conscious) / automatic(permanent, subconscious)

+ meaningful practice can cause restructuring(도식의 변화) from controlled(declarative) to automatic(procedural)

 

* Ausbel's meaningful learning theory(↔ Bruner's discovery learning)

1. rote learning - without association with existing cognitive structure, systematic forgetting(proactive/retroactive inhibition)

2. meaningful learning - cognitive pruning(intentional forgetting), subsumption(인지구조에 동화)