Semantics(의미론)(1)

Semantics - decontextualized sentence

1. lexical semantics (+ denotation - 외연적인 의미 / connotation - 내포한 의미, 가치판단(좋다, 나쁘다)의 의미)

① synonyms : p→q and ~q→~p, and q→p and ~p→~q - ex) big, large (different connotations)

② hyponym(superordinate) : p→q and ~q→~p - ex) a pig is a hyponym of both piglet and boar

③ overlaps(common feature) - ex) sister-niece (women, family ...)

④ antonyms

⑴ binary(complementary pairs) : p→~q and ~p→q ex) alive = not dead, dead = not alive

⑵ gradable ex) hot ... warm ... cold, : p→~q and ~p↛q ex) how cold is it - cold is unmarked

 

+ binary와 gradable의 차이

⒜ intensifier modification ex) very *alive/cold / ⒝ how-degree question ex) how *alive/cold is he?

⒞ comparatives and superlatives ex) more *alive/cold than / ⒟ markedness ex) how low - 전제를 포함

⑶ converse predicates(relational opposites) - a valency(동사의 구성요소 수) of two, 같은 중요성, 크기, 수준

⒜ relationship - husband-wife(A is B's husband and B is A's wife), nominator-nominee, trainer-trainee

⒝ space/time - A is above B, B is below A / ⒞ more or less - A is more expensive than B

⑷ reversives(reversive pairs) - 방향이 반대 ex) buy-sell, tie-untie, fold-unfold

 

⑤ homonyms - 서로 다른 두 개의 단어 / polysemy - 서로 다른 의미를 가지는 단어(polysemous words)

⑴ homophones - different meaning and spelling / same pronunciation - ex) bear-bare

⑵ homographs - different meaning / same spelling and pronunciation - ex) smart - sting, clever

⑶ heteronyms - different meaning and pronunciation / same spelling - ex) pussy - kitten, infected

 

⑥ anomaly - nonsense - ex) colorless green

⑦ metaphor - appears anomalous but is understood meaningfully ex) a grief ago

⑧ idioms - starts with metaphoric but fixed with repetition ex) hit it off

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2. sentential semantics - 같은 명제(proposition=진리조건이 같다=같은 의미이다)가 여러 가지 문장으로 나타난다.

= compositional (of small units) semantics + (speaker's knowledge of) truth-conditional semantics

 

① three levels of meaning - sentence meaning, statement meaning, utterance meaning

⑴ sentence meaning - sentence 자체로는 truth value를 가지지 못하지만 이 sentence를 true/false statement로 만들 truth conditions(문장의 의미)를 가지고 있으며, 이러한 모든 의미들을 propositional(명제) content라 한다.

ex) John caressed Marry와 Mary was caressed by John은 같은 propositional content를 가지고 있으므로 동일한 statement를 의미한다(yield statement with the same truth values on 'all occasions of use'(de-context))

⑵ statement meaning - 자체로 truth value를 가지고 있으며, so its veracity(진실성) can be challenged

+ statement meaning has two parts : an element of assertion and something that is asserted(대상). Among them the latter is called proposition, which has essential property of being either true of false

⑶ utterance meaning - an utterance contains intended meaning, so even a fully elaborated statement meaning may not adequately represent everything the speaker intended to convey by uttering a sentence

 

② individual sentence

⑴ analytic sentence - true within the words in it - ex) a bachelor is an unmarried man

⑵ contradiction(paradox) - false within the words in it - ex) a blue gas is colorless

+ redundancy(=tautology) - 같은 내용을 한 문장에 반복하는 것 - 비문

⑶ synthetic sentence - true or false depending on the world - ex) Mr. brown is married

 

③ truth conditional semantics - accounts for the lexical(meaning) relations between different expressions

⑴ entailment - a proposition that follows necessarily from another sentence : →

ex) Martina aced chemistry entails she passed chemistry, but Martina passed chemistry does not entail she aced chemistry (역), nor Martina didn't ace chemistry also does not entail she passed chemistry (이), but Martina didn't passed chemistry entails she didn't ace chemistry (대우)

⑵ paraphrase(equivalence) - A and B entail each other at the same time - 어떤 문맥에서든 같은 의미

ex) Martina passed chemistry is a paraphrase of what Martina pass was chemistry