Semantics(의미론)(2)

⑶ presupposition (+ 화용론에선 situations that must exist for utterances to be relevant or appropriate)

- a proposition which should be true in order to judge truth or falsity of another sentence

- a presupposed sentence is constantly true under the negation of a presupposing sentence

ex) (a) The mayor of Liverpool is(isn't) in town / (b) there is a mayor in Liverpool - (a) presupposes (b)

+ presupposition triggers - ① syntactic, ② predicate(⑴ change of state, factive, implicative)

⒜ wh-question - ex) when will you take out a trash? ⒝ comparative - ex) I'm more beautiful than you

⒞ cleft - ex) it is you that love me ⒟ time adverbial - ex) I could run before you leant to walk /

 

⒜ change of state verb - ex) I continued(began, stopped) to think about it

⒝ factive verb (사실이라고 전제) - ex) he demonstrated(realized, regretted, knew, showed, explained, learned, remembered, blamed(for), accused(of), odd, tragic / *think, *expect, *believe) that you die soon

⒞ implicative verb - do not presuppose the truth but carry some implication about truth or non-truth

+ → +, - → - ex) I managed to catch him / + → -, - → + ex) I neglected / failed to make reservations

+ → +, - → 0 ex) I acknowledged / admitted starting the fire / + → -, - → 0 ex) I pretend to be asleep

+ → 0, - → - ex) I tried(risked) to answer(~ing) / + → 0, - → + ex) I denied(hesitated) accepting(to V) it

⑷ contrariety - p is 'not q', but 'not p' is not q - ex) John killed the wasp - The wasp is alive

⑸ contradictory - if either is true, the other is false - ex) The wasp is dead - The wasp is alive

 

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3. reference - linguistic context(uttered in the discourse), situational context(extralinguistic, nonlinguistic)

① between words

⑴ coreference - two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real world entity, but not synonymous

ex) host of the Tonight show - Johnny Carson, Jay Leno

⑵ anaphora - a linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression, but not coreferential (not related to extralinguistic referent[지시대상]) - ex) Mary likes whoever thinks himself strong

⑶ deixis(deictic expression) - the meaning of referents can only be determined by the context(reference resolution) - pronouns, demonstratives, locative and temporal adverbs, prepositions, verbs(come and go)

+ deictic shifting - (내용은 같지만) deixis changes to fit into the speaker and listener's perspective

+ anaphora and deixis can intersect with each other ex) Members of congress believed they deserved it

⒜ anaphoric - members of congress / ⒝ deictic - members of congress or some entity in the context

② Logical relation between words

⑴ transitivity - A is B and B is C - A is C (반대는 intransitive)

⑵ symmetry - A is B and B is A / asymmetry - A is B but B is not A / non-symmetry - 둘 다 아님

⑶ converseness - A is below B then B is above A

 

+ intersective vs non-intersective

① intersective - red hat - 결국 hat / ② non-intersective - imitation leather - 결국 leather가 아니다

+ Use and Mention

① Use(눈은) - snow is white, snow damages crops, snow is frozen water

② Mention(snow라는 단어는) - 'snow' has four letters, 'snow' is a noun, 'snow' is a natural kind term

+ modal auxiliary의 denotic/epistemic meaning

① denotic - 의무 ex) you may go(구체적인 행동) ② epistemic - 가능성 ex) you may think so(추상적인 생각)

+ lexical vs syntactic converseness

① lexical - ex) experiencer는 주어 자리에 있어야 unmarked / ② syntactic - 수동태와 능동태 간의 관계

+ meaning change(semantic change) / figurative language

① Generalization, extensions(의미가 넓어지고 확장), Specialization, reductions(의미가 좁아지고 구체화)

② Perjoration, degradations(의미가 나빠짐), Amelioration, elevations(의미가 좋아짐, knight(하인-기사))

③ Metaphor(but A not B), Simile(like, as), Symbol(not only A but also B)

④ Metonymy(하나의 속성으로 전체를 설명), synecdoche(부분으로 전체를 설명)