1. raising - movement와 연관 - trace가 생김
ex) __ seemed ([barnet] [to understand the formula]) - D structure
- Barnet is assigned the thematic role of experiencer as the subject of understand.
ex) It seemed that Barnet understood the formula - 'It' receives no thematic role(expletive, EPP)
ex) *It seemed Barnet to understand it - the spec of main TP is already occupied by 'it'
ex) (Barnet) seemed [ (t) to understand the formula] - S structure
- 'seem'의 theta grid는 proposition 하나, understand는 experiencer 그리고 theme 두 개의 role을 가진다.
+ the predicate 'seem' doesn't have an external theta role but does have a nominative case
- Barnet이 이동한 이유 : D structure에선 case를 못 받아서 + 문장에 주어가 필수라서(EPP)
- Barnet is assigned a nominative case from the tensed verb 'seem'(자세히 말하면 T로부터 받는다.)
2. the types of raising
① subject to subject raising {V + to VP} - intransitive raising(ergative)
- seem, appear, happen, be certain, be likely, turn out (raising verb) + believe유형의 수동태(be found to)
ex) prices appear t to be increasing, ex) *that he can't come turns out - it turns out that he can't come
② subject to object raising (V+NP+VP) - transitive raising, 원래 complement가 1개(monotransitive)
- believe, expect, prove, predict, know, report, consider, intend
ex) Tom proves {(her) [ (t) to be hiding something]} - according to theta grid, 'prove' has two thematic roles to assign: 'agent' to its subject and 'theme' to the proposition(monotransitive), and 'her' moves in order to be assigned case / cf) that절 같은 경우는 case를 받을 필요가 없으니까 앞으로 이동 x
3. control - movement와 연관이 없다 - PRO(empty or invisible pronominal NP)
ex) barnet tried [PRO to understand the formula]
- try의 theta grid(the number of arguments)는 agent와 proposition 두 개이며 understand는 experiencer와 proposition 두 개이다. 그런데 understand의 주어 자리가 공석이다. - 자리는 4개 argument는 3개
- Barnet appears to be assigned two roles: one is 'agent' as a subject of the verb 'try' and 'experiencer' of the verb 'understand'. but, actually PRO takes this role - 하나의 NP가 두 개의 role을 받지 못하므로
- ‘barnet' is assigned nominative case from the tensed verb ‘try’ - 사실은 T에서 nominative case 부여
- 'barnet' is semantically an external argument of the verb try - subject control
+ although the extrinsic structures seem same, verbs can have different controller
ex) Jean persuaded Robert PRO(Robert) to leave - controller가 Robert
ex) Jean promised Susan PRO(Jean) to leave - controller가 Jean
+ Robert knows that it is essential [PRO(j/i) to be well-behaved] - non-arbitrary or arbitrary PRO
4. the types of control - arbitrary control, non-arbitrary control{obligatory(subject, object), optional}
① optional control - Robert(i) knows that it is essential [PRO(i/j) to be well-behaved]
- PRO가 Robert가 될 수 있고(on his birthday) 또는 Someone else도 될 수 있다(on one's birthday)
② subject control(directed) (V+VP) - intransitive control
ex) Bill(i) hoped PRO(i) to eat a bagel
③ object control(directed) (V+NP+VP) - transitive control, ditransitive(2complement), three-place predicate
ex) Steve persuaded [John] [PRO to leave]
- John이 thematic role을 두 개 가질 순 없으니까 PRO에게 나눈다.(leave로부터 agent)
- persuade는 John과 Steve에게 각각 case와 thematic role을 모두 준다.(사실, nominative case는 T로부터 받음)
cf) intend - complement가 한 개인 동사 (expect case)
ex) I intended [PRO to pay for the damage] - SC - (what case)
ex) I never intended (that [ t to happen]) - SOR - monotransitive (believe, want case)
5. selectional restriction - theta role을 받으면 selected by the verb - ex) predicate 'try' selects a subject that is an ① animate(움직이는), ② sentinent(지각이 있는), ③ volitional(의지가 있는) entity - [+human]
ex) *the rock tried to be granite - try assigns the agent role to a volitional entity
ex) Barnet believed (the rock to be granite) - 'believe' does not select 'the rock', but the proposition
ex) *Barnet persuaded (the rock) (to be granite) - the rock is not selected by 'persuade', and it violates the selectional restriction
6. embedded passivization(post verbal passivization)
① raising
ex) barnet seemed [(t) to have read the book] - 0 seemed [the book to have been read]
- the book seemed [(t) to have been read by barnet] - synonymous with the active one
ex) Ed believes [the jury to have given the wrong verdict] - the second NP is semantically a subject
- Ed believes [the wrong verdict to have been given by the jury] - synonymous with the active one
② control
ex) the doctor tried [PRO] [to examine Tom]
- Tom tried [PRO] [to be examined by the doctor] - not synonymous with the active one
ex) Ed persuaded [the doctor] [to examine Tom]
- *Ed persuaded [Tom] [to be examined by the doctor] - impossible
+ matrix clause passivization - the second NP of believe type is also syntactically an object of main verb
ex) The doctor was persuaded (by Ed) to examine Tom
ex) The jury is believed (by Ed) to have given the wrong verdict
7. pleonastic(semantically empty) (dummy) It/ (expletive) There
① expletive there/dummy it are only in subject position(syntactically)
② it이 theta role을 받는지 못 받는지의 여부 - semantically empty라서 안 됨
③ persuade는 animate만 complement로 가짐(selectional restriction, semantically)
ex) It(there) seems (to be a unicorn in the garden)
ex) Barnet believed (there[it] to be a unicorn in the garden)
ex) *Barnet persuaded (there[it]) (to have rained)
8. Idiom chunks - raising: 의미 보존 (hold idiomatic interpretation) / control: 의미 보존 x
ex) the cat is out of the bag (one-time secret is no longer a secret) (the cat takes on a special meaning)
ex) the cat seemed to be out of the bag / ?the cat tried to be out of the bag
ex) Tom believed the cat to be out of the bag / ?Tom persuaded the cat to be out of the bag
+ 6, 7, 8 are argumenthood tests(clausal object가 문장 or 단어), which differentiates raising from control
9. control, raising, tough 비교
① control - ex) John is eager PRO to please (자동사로 원한다는 의미로 쓰임)
② raising - ex) John is certain t to please - Subject to subject raising
③ tough - ex) John is easy to please t - object to subject raising(put old info in its typical position)
10. persuade와 believe의 비교 - ① verbal adjunct rule, ② reflexive rule
ex) [John persuade Mary firmly] [PRO to resign] - 꾸며주는 개체와 같은 절에 있어야 한다.
ex)*John believed [Mary firmly to be innocent] - 'believe'(꾸며주는 개체)와 같은 절에 못 있어서 비문
ex) [John persuaded Mary himself] [PRO to resign] - 선행사와 같은 절에 있어야 한다.
ex)*John believed [Mary himself to be innocent] - ‘John'(선행사)와 같은 절에 못 있어서 비문
+ floating emphatic reflexive - some emphatic reflexives don't immediately follow their antecedents
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